The Mezquita: Córdoba’s Mesmerizing Mosque-Cathedral Hybrid

The Great Mosque of Córdoba, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Andalusia, endures as a monument to Spain’s cross-cultural harmony. 

Ancient Rome, Islamic Spain and Catholicism all come together in the breathtaking Mezquita in Córdoba.

It’s all about those arches. They seem to multiply into infinity, creating a seeming mirror maze of red and white latticework. It’s one of the iconic images that make Córdoba a must-visit stop on any trip to the south of Spain. 

The Mezquita in Córdoba is the perfect symbol of what Duke and I love about Andalusia. You have Roman influences, Islamic stylings and a Roman Catholic overlay. It’s a magical part of the world, where these three cultures blend together into architecture that can’t be found anywhere else but southern Spain. 

Case in point: Córdoba’s Great Mosque, known as the Mezquita, perpetually rising from its ashes like a phoenix over 10 centuries through a fascinating interplay of Roman, Islamic and Christian construction. 

“King Carlos I lamented his decision to allow the construction of the cathedral, saying, “They have taken something unique in all the world and destroyed it to build something commonplace.”

That’s a bit harsh.”

Parts of the massive structure’s exterior retain their Islamic architecture.

Abd ar-Rahman and the Start of the Mezquita

To understand Córdoba and the history of this amazing structure, we must travel to the Middle East and meet Abd ar-Rahman I, a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, Syria. Things aren’t going so well for the prince. His family was massacred by the Abbasids, rivals for Islamic rule, and Abd ar-Rahman fled, hiding out in the farthest corner of the Muslim world. That is, the south of Spain. 

He ended up in Córdoba. After wresting control of the city from the Visigoths, Abd ar-Rahman began eyeing the church of San Vicente, the largest in town. Not surprisingly, it had been been built upon the ruins of a Roman temple (you’ll notice a trend). Abd ar-Rahman purchased half of the church from the Christians to start, before eventually buying the rest. 

Then, in 786 CE, he tore down the church to construct his most important project: a massive cathedral mosque. 

The History of the Mezquita

The designers ran with those mesmerizing horseshoe arches, a style borrowed from the Visigoths, placing them atop recycled columns from the original Roman ruins. The distinctive red and white is a result of alternating brick and stone. The repetition of the arches was an attempt to evoke the infinite nature of Allah. I’d say they succeeded. 

“The aesthetics of the new Cordoban mosque, to which Muslims from far and wide throughout history would forever write odes, was typically Anadusian from the start: part adaptation of local, vernacular forms and part homage to Umayyad Syria, forever the source of hereditary legitimacy,” María Rosa Menocal writes in The Ornament of the World. 

“The Cordoba mosque continued to be built, and added to, for the next 200 years, until nearly the year 1000, but the characteristic look of the place, the horseshoe arches that sit piggybacked on each other, themselves dizzyingly doubled in alternations of red and white, were established from the start,” she continues.

Abd ar-Rahman II, great-grandson of his namesake (792-852), expanded the Great Mosque and added a new mihrab, a niche where Muslims face to pray. 

Then, Abd ar-Rahman III (891-961) enlarged the patio and built a new minaret, which stood 130 feet (40 meters) tall. 

All those red and white arches, designed to mimic infinity, are truly hypnotic.

His son, Al-Hakam (915-976), continued his father’s work — in fact, he’s responsible for the most impressive renovation of the space. He had new columns built, alternating pink and blue marble. Domes were added to let in light, while painted wood beams decorated the ceiling. The 11 naves were extended, and a larger qibla wall built (this is supposed to be the cue to facing Mecca, but more on that later). Oh, and there was a secret passage for the caliph to enter the mosque from his adjoining palace. 

Gorgeously painted wooden ceiling beams

At the end of the 10th century, Córdoba had become a bustling city. To accommodate the growing population, Almanzor (938-1002) made the courtyard bigger and added eight naves. These are the most austere of the bunch. Ultimately, the Mezquita could hold 40,000 worshippers. It was the largest mosque in the world at the time. 

It wasn’t just used for prayer, though; it was the center of Cordoban life. Judges made rulings near the mihrab. Teachers taught children under the arches. And traveling pilgrims were allowed to sleep there. 

Religious Reversal: From Mosque to Cathedral

In 1236, King Ferdinand III conquered Córdoba, returning the city to Christian rule. The mosque transitioned to the cathedral of Santa María, even as many Islamic elements endured. The Main Chapel is located under the skylight. 

King Henry II built the Royal Chapel to provide tombs for Castilian monarchs. This was done in the Mudéjar style, a delightful blend of Gothic and Islamic, using Muslim architects and carpenters. 

An area with pointed arches was built to give light and height for the choir as well as the church bigwigs. 

The structure remained largely the same until 1528, when King Carlos I gave permission to tear out the center of the mosque to build a proper cathedral, much to the dismay of many in Córdoba. Turns out he ended up agreeing with them. When the king visited, he lamented his decision, saying something along the lines of, “They have taken something unique in all the world and destroyed it to build something commonplace.” 

That might be a bit too harsh. This is still one impressive place of worship.

The choir stalls were built in the Baroque style of mahogany wood from Cuba. As in many Catholic churches, naves line the walls, containing small chapels. 

(FYI: Much of this history comes from a kid’s book we bought in town: La Mezquita de Córdoba by Manuel González Mestre, with fun illustrations by Jacobo Muñiz López.)

The Mihrab: Where Intricate Beauty Meets Spiritual Significance

While wandering the Mezquita, look for the mihrab. Among the monument’s ornate riches, none capture the cross-cultural transformation quite like the exquisite mihrab, located along the back wall on the right side. It’s considered the most sacred part of a mosque. 

Strangely enough, though, this qibla doesn’t actually indicate Mecca. Instead, it faces south. One theory is that it was a reference to the direction where Mecca would be from Abd ar-Rahman’s hometown of Damascus. Then again, it’s also thought that the streetscape didn’t allow for the qibla to face east as it should have, and instead was chosen to align with the Guadalquivir River.

When Córdoba was conquered by the Christians, they not only repurposed the mosque, they also recognized the mihrab’s beauty and spiritual importance — and actually preserved it! It’s a surprising moment where two faiths coexist within the same sacred space.

Intricate mosaics, geometric patterns and calligraphy intertwine to create a tapestry of colors and shapes that leaves visitors in awe. 

The Patio de los Naranjos: An Oasis of Tranquility

Chances are you’ll begin your exploration of the Mezquita in the Patio de los Naranjos, the Courtyard of the Orange Trees. For one thing, it’s where you line up to buy tickets. 

This tranquil oasis, with its fragrant blossoms and centuries of history, offers a contrast to the architectural wonders inside. And it’s not just orange trees — there are also olive trees, palms and cypresses. 

In its long history, this courtyard been a place for reflection, prayer and community gatherings. And there was a section where Muslims would perform their ablutions, or ritual cleansings, before entering the mosque. 

Visiting the Mezquita

Recognizing the Mezquita’s cultural and historical importance, UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site in 1984. This status is a testament to the ongoing efforts to protect and preserve the architectural marvel, ensuring that future generations can continue to be inspired by its grandeur.

Pro tip: The early bird gets the arch. 

We went early in the morning to see the Mezquita before mass was held. It’s free, so you don’t need to bother with tickets. (If you don’t go at this time, be sure to get your tickets as soon as possible. They cost 13 euros. I think it’s a good idea to book a day in advance if you have the time, but most travel sites say you don’t need to worry about it selling out. Call me paranoid.)

We figured the pre-mass time was a good way to escape the massive tour groups that would invade the space later in the day. To do so, you don’t go through the Patio de los Naranjos as you normally would. You enter through the Puerta de Santa Catalina. The one downside is that you don’t have a lot of time to explore. Get there right at 8:30, cuz security guards will kick you out around 9:20 so mass can begin. 

This trick is considered the worst-kept secret in Córdoba, so keep in mind that word has gotten out. But it’s still supposed to be better than most other times. If you can’t make it early, or want more time, try booking the end of the day.

More Metamorphoses: Temple to Church to Mosque to Cathedral 

Like the ceaselessly repurposed structures within its walls, the Mezquita represents the fluid nature of Spain’s cultural and religious history. As both mosque and church, this house of worship symbolizes Andalusia’s legacy as a place where Ancient Rome, Islam and Catholicism converge. For over 10 centuries, the awe-inspiring Mezquita has shifted shapes and uses but has endured. That’s typical of this wondrous part of Spain. –Wally

Ramadan Revealed: Radical Traditions of the Islamic Holiday

Eye-opening insights into Muslim practices, including fasting, iftar, suhoor, zakat and the Night of Power. 

Ramadan: when Muslims don’t eat, drink water, smoke, have sex or doing anything bad during the day for an entire month?! Learn more about this holiday.

“Ramadan’s been interesting,” my friend living in Qatar once told me. “It’s only been two days and it’s already a country full of cranky, sweaty, dehydrated, hungry people. It’s no way to live.”

The concept of not eating, or even being allowed to drink water, during daylight hours for an entire month seems so foreign to us Westerners — and, yes, downright bonkers. It can’t be healthy, for one thing. 

“Ramadan is like Lent for Catholics.

Only instead of giving up something you love, you’re giving up something you need to survive. ”

You see, Ramadan is a bit like Lent for Catholics. Only instead of giving up something you love, you’re giving up something you need to survive. 

Ramadan is a time of spiritual reflection, self-discipline and community. But let’s be real — it’s also a time of intense hunger, caffeine and nicotine withdrawal, and dramatic mood swings.

But these sweeping generalizations miss the point. I didn’t have the full story of why Muslims celebrate Ramadan. So I decided to do some digging. 

Fascinating Facts About Ramadan

Ramadan is based on the lunar calendar, which means it starts 11 days earlier each year than the previous year. It takes 33 years for Ramadan to cycle back to a particular starting date. And once in a very blue moon, like in 1997, two Ramadans will fall within the same calendar year. The next time that will happen: 2033. 

The holiday began in 624 CE and commemorates the month in which the Prophet Muhammad is said to have received the first revelations of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, from none other than the angel Gabriel. 

The angel Gabriel delivers the Quran to the Prophet Muhammed — the event celebrated during Ramadan.

The word Ramadan comes from ramida, an Arabic root that means scorching heat or dryness. And no, it’s not referring to people’s parched throats on a hot day but the fact that Ramadan originally fell during the summer season.

Fasting during Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam, which are the basic duties that every devout Muslim must follow. The other pillars are prayer, declaration of faith, charity and pilgrimage.

Some years there are more hours of fasting due to longer daylight hours. The hours of fasting also change substantially throughout the world based on the hours of daylight in various locations. 

Not everyone has to fast, though. There are some exceptions, such as children (you’re on the hook only after puberty), and those who are elderly, sick, traveling, pregnant, menstruating, breastfeeding…or all of the above. You can either make up the fasts later or feed a poor person for each day you miss.

Fasting during Ramadan isn’t just about abstaining from food and drink — you have to forgo sex, smoking, and anything else deemed indecent or excessive. Muslims also try to avoid anger, gossip and bad deeds during the month.

You might think that fasting during Ramadan would work as a crash diet. But that’s not always the case. In fact, some people actually gain weight because they overeat after breaking their fast at sunset and shortly thereafter fall into bed. 

Once the sun has gone down, people can break their fast with the meal called iftar.

Iftar and Suhoor: Time to Stuff Yourself Silly

Break their fast you say? Well, it’s not like people could survive not eating or drinking water for an entire month. So, once the sun has set, Muslims have a meal called iftar, which traditionally starts with dates and water, as well as other foods like soup, rice and bread. 

Dates are the traditional food to break your fast once the sun sets during Ramadan.

Iftar is a time for celebration and indulgence. It’s a chance to gather with loved ones, share delicious food and thank Allah for the blessings of the day. 

People prepare plates of food for iftar. It must be hell cooking delicious-smelling dishes when you haven’t eaten all day.

Muslims then catch a few Z’s before getting up before dawn to eat a meal called suhoor. It’s a delicate balance between filling up enough to last until sunset without feeling like you’re going to burst. 

Prayer in Cairo by Jean-Leon Gerome, 1865

Prayer and Charity: The Chance for Forgiveness 

During Ramadan, Muslims attend special night prayers called taraweeh at mosques. They seek to deepen their relationship with Allah and cultivate a sense of spiritual peace and tranquility.

There’s also a strong focus on helping others. Islamic teachings encourage Muslims to set aside a percentage of their accumulated wealth to donate to charity (zakat) and do good works for the neediest in their community. “The best charity is that given in Ramadan,” Muhammed said.

The Night of Power is a mysterious occurrence during Ramadan. Muslims can seek it through intense prayer at a mosque during the last 10 days of the holy month.

The Quest for the Night of Power 

One of the most important moments of Ramadan is the Night of Power, or Laylat al-Qadr. The Quran declares that it’s “better than a thousand months” (Surah Al-Qadr, 97:3). 

I don’t quite understand what the Night of Power entails; it sounds a bit like an epiphany. According to the Prophet Muhammad, it’s an opportunity to ask for forgiveness of your sins.

But the Night of Power is elusive, mysterious, intensely personal. One way to seek the Night of Power is through the practice of i’tikaf, which involves secluding yourself in a mosque for the last 10 days of Ramadan. This intense focus on prayer and contemplation increases your chances of finding the Night of Power.

Many Muslims spend more time praying during Ramadan.

Another way to seek the Night of Power is through increased acts of worship, such as reciting the Quran, performing extra prayers or giving zakat. 

Finally, Muslims can seek the Night of Power through supplication and heartfelt dua, the act of calling upon Allah. Good news: “A fasting person, upon breaking his fast, has a supplication that will not be rejected,” Muhammad said. 

Massive amounts of people come together to celebrate Eid al-Fitr, the end of Ramadan.

Eid Al-Fitr: A Well-Earned Celebration 

After the month of fasting, prayer and spiritual reflection, Muslims around the world come together to celebrate Eid al-Fitr, the Festival of Breaking the Fast. (It’s pronounced like Eed al-Fitter.) It’s a time of joy, feasting and giving thanks.

The day begins with the Eid prayer, followed by a sermon in which the imam reminds the community of the lessons learned during Ramadan and encourages them to continue their spiritual growth throughout the year. 

People go to a mosque on Eid al-Fitr — and after the sermon, the feast begins.

After the prayer and sermon, Muslims exchange greetings of “Eid Mubarak” and engage in acts of charity and kindness. 

Finally, Eid al-Fitr is a time of feasting and indulgence, with traditional sweets and delicacies being shared among family and friends. 

Girl Reciting Quran by Osman Hamdi Bey, 1880

Ramadan and Self-Transformation 

I now have a better understanding of Ramadan. The religious holiday is a spiritual detox, a month-long opportunity for Muslims to purify their hearts, minds and souls. It’s a time to leave behind bad habits and negative behaviors, and focus on strengthening their connection with Allah and becoming better individuals.

It’s also an opportunity to wipe the slate clean. As the Prophet Muhammad said, “Whoever observes fasts during the month of Ramadan out of sincere faith and hoping to attain Allah’s rewards, all his past sins will be forgiven.”

Ramadan is a time of self-reflection, charity and forgiveness.

I’m sure that the intense sacrifice Muslims make during Ramadan leads to some pretty powerful revelations about one’s self and helps people be more empathetic to the less fortunate.  

“Ramadan is a time for us to remember what is essential in life, to let go of our attachments to the trivial and the mundane, and to connect with the divine and the transcendent,” says Omid Safi, a professor of Islamic studies at Duke University. 

Maybe that’s not so unhealthy after all. –Wally

The Saadian Tombs: A Glorious Monument to the Dead

Peek inside the royal necropolis in Marrakech, which rivals parts of the Alhambra in its beauty. We can thank Sultan al-Mansur for its magnificence — and Ismail Ibn Sharif’s fear of the dead for leaving it intact. 

The Saadian Tombs in 1925

Don’t judge a tomb by its cover. The unremarkable exterior walls surrounding the Saadian Tombs in the medina of Marrakech concealed their exquisite mausoleums for centuries, attracting little more than stray cats and storks. While not much to look at from the outside, the secluded interior courtyard is a completely different matter. 

Walled in and forgotten for more than two centuries, the necropolis of the deceased Saadian royals and their descendants remained hidden until its discovery in 1917. French Resident-General Hubert Lyautey commissioned an aerial survey of Marrakech and, by chance, the photographs revealed the existence of the tombs. They were brought back from disrepair by the Service des Beaux-Arts, Antiquités et des Monuments Historiques before being opened to the general public. 

The unassuming exterior of the Saadian Tombs belies its gorgeous interior.

The historic property is located along the Rue de la Kasbah near the ruins of the El Badi Palace. Even if you have a strong sense of direction, the unmarked streets and nondescript ancient rammed earth walls surrounding many of the buildings in the medina district of Marrakech make finding a destination challenging. 

Ahmad al-Mansur

We eventually did and purchased our tickets, which cost 70 dirhams, or around $8, each. Wally, our friend Vanessa and I passed through an inconspicuous narrow corridor cut into the exterior wall and emerged into a tranquil courtyard garden. 

The royal necropolis dates back to the beginning of the 14th century and originally served as a courtyard garden of the Kasbah Mosque. It wasn’t until the reign of the sixth and most famous sultan of the Saadian dynasty, Ahmad al-Mansur (who reigned from 1578-1603 and was known as Eddahbi, the Golden), that the construction of the tombs reached a far more elegant and refined status. Before al-Mansur died from the plague in 1603, he expanded and embellished its mausoleums in the grand style of the Alhambra, the royal residence of the Nasrid Kingdom, built 200 years prior in Granada, Spain.

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Brightly tiled tombstones fill the courtyard.

A Rested Development

Seven sultans and 62 family members are interred in the Saadian Tombs, with over 100 more outside in the gardens. 

The courtyard enclosure includes two mausoleums with gabled, glazed green roof tiles of kiln-fired clay. 

The gravestones in the mihrab, or prayer niche, reminded us of prayer mats.

The main tombs are located to the left of the enclosure. The first of the three chambers was originally a mihrab, or prayer niche, and is now the final resting place of Saadian princes. Its walls and floors are covered with intricate multicolored zellij mosaic tiles. The varying shapes, colors and patterns embedded in the flat graves reminded me of prayer rugs, laid facing Mecca, for eternity. The stucco work of the archway is delicate and ornate, while the ceiling is equally impressive.

The Hall of Twelve Columns is the star of the show.

Pillars of Society: The Hall of Twelve Columns

The central mausoleum where al-Mansour lies is known as the Hall of Twelve Columns. This chamber incorporates a dozen Carrera marble pillars, carved stucco walls and gilt honeycomb ceiling vaulting known as muqarnas. Al-Mansur traded sugar with the Italians in exchange for the marble, which is fitting, as its white, crystalline surface resembles the fine granular texture of sugar. The sultan’s narrow marble headstone stands in the center of the room and is flanked by those of his son and grandson. The chamber is also home to the remains of Princess Zahra, whose epitaph reads, “Here is the tomb of the noble lady, new moon, marvel of virtues.”

A coffered cedarwood ceiling with sunken square panels of diminishing sizes representing the earth and a circle at its apex standing in for the heavens spans the columned central chamber. This sacred geometry symbolizes the passage from the material to the spiritual world. 

Recent restoration work on the Saadian Tombs began in 2013 and lasted for two years.

The Three Niche Chamber and Lalla Masuda Qubba

Beyond the great hall is the Three Niche Chamber, where those relations deemed less important, including children, are buried. The three arched recesses for which the mausoleum takes its name feature magnificent incised muqarnas embossed in gold, lending the space a luminous quality. 

The “less important” relatives were interred in the Three Niche Chamber, which is still not too shabby a place to spend eternity, if you ask us.

Between the mausoleums and throughout the gardens are descendants, wives and emirs, each resting closer or further away from al-Mansur’s sepulcher, depending on his or her status. 

The entrance to the Lalla Masuda Qubba. As with the rest of the complex, you can’t go inside —  but you can peek into the chambers.

The second and smaller structure is called the Lalla Masuda Qubba and refers to the domed roof mausoleum which contains the grave of al-Mansur’s mother. 

Lalla Masuda

The oldest and original Saadian tomb includes a cedarwood dome and two entrance porches or loggias. It was built by Sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib to bury his father, Mohammed al-Sheikh, the founder of the dynasty. 

In 1591, al-Mansur had his mother, Lalla Masuda, added to the tomb. She was a Moroccan political figure in the Saadi dynasty remembered for her humanitarian work and considered an awliya, or saint. 

Fearing the Dead 

Less than two decades later, Sultan Ahmad al-Abbas was assassinated, the Saadian dynasty had come to an end, and the Alaouites had taken control of the country.  

When Sultan Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif assumed power, he wasted no time eradicating the legacy of the Saadi dynasty. He systematically set about looting and stripping most of their architectural achievements, including the El Badi Palace. However, he spared the Saadian Tombs — probably because he feared bad luck if he desecrated them and was superstitious that the spirits of the dead would pursue him. He satisfied himself with sealing up all but one obscure entrance from the Kasbah Mosque. 

Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif completely stripped the nearby El Badi Palace but left the Saadian Tombs intact. Was he nervous about disturbing the spirits of the dead?

The Saadian Tombs gave us a sense of the former grandeur of the El Badi Palace. Heads up that the various chambers are off limits to the public, but a path winds past them, letting tourists see them from outside, much like peeking into a diorama. 

While the tombs are cordoned off to human visitors, felines are another matter. We witnessed more than a few cats and kittens napping on their cool tiled floors. 

If you enjoy Islamic architecture as much as we do, then a visit to this funerary monument and tribute to the Saadian legacy is a must. –Duke

 

Othman, the Influential Third Khalifa of Isalm — and His Grisly Demise

Uthman ibn Affan, as he was also known, created the definitive version of the Quran and greatly improved the Islamic Empire’s infrastructure. 

Othman accomplished quite a bit during his time as khalifa — until he was brutally murdered by a mob.

The Prophet Mohammed had been dead for only 12 years, and already the religion he founded, Islam, was on its third leader, or khalifa. 

“Staggering wealth, dazzling beauty, two of the Prophet’s daughters for wives — what did this man lack?”

— Tamim Ansary, “Destiny Disrupted”

This painting depicts the election of Othman as the third khalifa of the budding religion of Islam.

The Third Khalifa: Othman

Othman (aka Uthman ibn Affan or Osman) was distantly related to Mohammad, as his fifth cousin once removed. Taking office at the age of 68, he was khalifa from 24-40 AH (644-661 CE). 

His father had been one of the richest men in Mecca, and Othman multiplied his family’s fortune many times over, earning him the nickname Othman the Wealthy.

He didn’t drink, he didn’t smoke, what did he do? Well, he also didn’t chase women — despite being known as quite the hottie.

Conversion and Repentance

Othman’s conversion to Islam didn’t go over well with his family, which was rabidly anti-Muslim. In fact, his stepfather had once tried to strangle Mohammed to death but was prevented by Abu Bakr. His two wives refused to convert, so he divorced them and married Mohammed’s gorgeous daughter, Ruqayya. After she died, Othman wed another of the Prophet’s daughters, Umm Kulthum. 

“Staggering wealth, dazzling beauty, two of the Prophet’s daughters for wives — what did this man lack?” asks Tamim Ansary in Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes. “And yet Othman seemed haunted by the fear that he was not good enough. He spent much of his time fasting, praying and reading the Qur’an. Perhaps his extravagant donations to the public good were attempts to deserve the extraordinary good fortune he already enjoyed.”

For instance, to make up for abandoning a battlefield after a rumor spread that Mohammed had been killed, Othman would buy slaves and free one every Friday.

For some reason, Othman decided to organize the verses of the Qur’an according to length — and that’s how the holy book remains to this day.

Shaping the Qur’an, Launching Massive Building Projects

The first big project Othman undertook was to create a definitive edition of the Qur’an. Scholars eliminated redundancies, resolved discrepancies and evaluated dubious passages. The final product was a book in which the verses were pretty much arranged according to length, rather than thematically or chronologically. That doesn’t seem like the best way to organize a holy book, but there you go.

Othman’s policies greatly benefitted his own clan, the Umayyads, forming a powerful dynasty, seen here at the siege of Constantinople.

Another contentious decision Othman made was to lift Omar’s restrictions on Muslims buying land in conquered territories. In fact, wealthy Muslims could borrow from the public treasury to finance these purchases. Soon a class of elites, many from his own clan, the Umayyads, had acquired immense estates throughout the new empire.

Othman’s construction projects must have gone over better with the public. He built more than 5,000 mosques, prettied up Medina, dug canals, constructed highways, improved irrigation systems, upgraded ports, and installed wells and water systems.

Of course, he also constructed himself a lavish palace — though within it,  he “lived on bread, water and prayer,” Ansary says.

The tomb of Othman in Jannat al-Baqī’, the first Islamic cemetery, found in Medina

The End of Othman

Othman had set up his foster brother as governor of Egypt, but the man tried to squeeze too much money out of the people. A delegation petitioned Othman to remove the man as governor, which he agreed to. 

On their way back to Egypt, members of the delegation spotted a suspicious-looking slave of the khalifa and searched him. They discovered a letter telling the governor to arrest and execute them upon their return.

LEARN ABOUT Abu Bakr and Umar, the first two khalifas of Islam

The delegation turned around and marched into the palace. When they showed Othman the letter, he expressed shock and said he had never seen it before. This might indeed have been the case, but the once-peaceful petitioners had devolved into an angry mob. 

“[T]he rioters worked themselves into a frenzy, broke down palace doors and burst in with a roar. They found the khalifa in his study, and there in the flickering twilight of the old man’s lamp, in year 34 of the Muslim era, they beat their own leader to death,” Ansary writes. 

It was an ignominious end to the life of one of the most influential early leaders of Islam. –Wally

The Birth of Islam and the First Two Khalifas: Abu Bakr and Umar

Who were the first khalifas after the death of the Prophet Mohammed? And how did they shape the new religion of Islam?

The selection of Abu Bakr as the first successor to the Prophet Mohammed caused the Sunni-Shiite schism in Islam that remains to this day.

The time immediately after a spiritual leader’s death can make or break a budding religion — and determine in what direction it goes. 

So it was for Islam after the death of Mohammed. Muslims needed another leader, but how could anyone compare to the irreplaceable Prophet — especially since he had declared that there weren’t going to be any more God-guided messengers like himself?

Abu Bakr is chosen as the Prophet Mohammed’s successor.

A group of decision-makers unanimously decided upon Abu Bakr, a close companion of Mohammed, giving him the title khalifa (or, caliph, to the Western world). The designation was quite modest: It means “deputy.”

Not everyone was happy with the decision. Ali, whose father had adopted Mohammed, was essentially a brother to the Prophet. He was also the first male Muslim, and time and time again, he showed his valor in defending Mohammed and Islam. 

But Ali had his youth working against him. He was just over 30, while Abu Bakr was almost 60. At the time, choosing a younger man over an older one was unthinkable. In fact, the word for a tribal leader, sheikh, literally translates to “old man.”

The first khalifa Abu Bakr, founder of the Sunni branch of Islam

Abu Bakr, the First Khalifa: The Start of Sunni vs. Shi’i 

The disagreement between the two men’s factions eventually led to the major sects of Islam: Those who favored Ali developed into Shi’i, which means “Partisans.” Abu Bakr led the Sunnis. 

Tribes soon began to secede from the alliance that Mohammed had forged, refusing to pay the charity tax to the treasury at Medina. 

“Had Abu Bakr allowed these departures, Islam would surely have gone in a very different direction,” writes Tamim Ansary in Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes. “It might have evolved into a set of practices and beliefs that people embraced individually. But Abu Bakr responded to the crisis by declaring secession to be treason.”

Abu Bakr held the role of khalifa for a short time (11-13 AH, or 632-634 CE) but set a hardline, all-or-nothing orthodoxy — in contrast to his genial persona as a kindly old man known to pass out candy to children on the street. (Note: The Islamic calendar follows a dating system designated AH, from the Latin anno hegirae, "in the year of the Hijra,” when Mohammed and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community, or Umma.)

Abu Bakr died from a chill after a bath — but not before he named Omar as his successor.

The Second Khalifa: Omar the Powerful, Omar the Forgotten

A hot bath, a cold breeze — and, a mere two years into his role as khalifa, Abu Bakr was on his deathbed. Not wanting any arguments, he named Omar (aka Umar) as his successor, with young Ali passed over once again.

Omar was about as opposite as you could get from the gentle Abu Bakr. He was a large rough-and-tumble kind of dude, with a legendary temper. In fact, he had been on his way to kill Mohammed, when he passed his sister, reading under a tree. When she told him she had become a Muslim, he snatched the Qur’an from her hand. It was open to a verse that seemed to speak directly to Omar, and that was it. He was converted. 

Omar shaped the religion in numerous lasting ways — an impressive legacy despite not being well known. During his time as khalifa, from 13-24 AH (634-644 CE), “he set the course of Islamic theology, he shaped Islam as a political ideology, he gave Islamic civilization its characteristic stamp, and he built an empire that ended up being bigger than Rome,” Ansary writes. “Any one of these achievements could have earned him a place in the who’s who of history’s most influential figures; the sum of them make him something like a combination of Saint Paul, Karl Marx, Lorenzo di Medici and Napoleon. Yet most people outside Islam know him only as a name and perhaps a one- or two-sentence descriptor: he’s the second khalifa, a successor of Mohammed — that’s about it.”

Omar who? The second khalifa of Islam, should be known to all as the man who shaped the Muslim world and ruled over an empire larger than Rome’s.

Omar set out to make Islam a just and egalitarian community — while launching a military campaign that succeeded despite overwhelming odds. 

His choice to use the term jihad to describe a war of conquest kicked off the controversy that lasts to this day. Jihad translates to “struggling,” and is supposed to only apply to fighting in self-defense. In an ironic bit of moral gymnastics, Islam is believed to be a realm of peace, therefore violence against non-Muslims can be justified because that bloodshed is ultimately helping expand the realm of peace. That strikes me as a bogus argument. Then again, Jesus preached peace, yet Christians have used religion to validate countless atrocities, from the Crusades to modern-day homophobia. 

Omar marches into Jerusalem. The khalifa was tolerant when it came to religious worship, which made him popular with those he conquered.

When Omar defeated a city, he allowed the Christians and Jews to worship as they pleased; they just had to pay a tax that was less than they were paying their Byzantine overlords. This seemed like a good deal to them. 

“By the time Omar died, Islamic rule covered more than 2 million square miles. How is this possible?” Ansary asks. “Religious Muslims offer the simple explanation that Muslims had the irresistible supernatural aid of Allah. Academic historians explain the Byzantine and Sassanid empires had just fought a ruinous war with each other, and despite their seeming might, they were both rotten to the core and ready to fall.” 

In 634 CE, a Persian slave named Lu’lu stabbed Omar multiple times in the back. No one’s sure if it was personal or in revenge for a military defeat. Either way, the influential reign of the man some consider as the true founder of the Arab empire, came to an abrupt end. –Wally

The Mind-Bogglingly Gorgeous Nasrid Palaces at the Alhambra

No trip to Granada is complete without a tour of the Palacio de los Leones and the Palacio de Carlos V. Learn the colorful history, which includes an explosion and a dinner party massacre.

The Patio de los Leones, with its namesake fountain

The impressive Alhambra complex in the charming town of Granada, Spain is a collection of palaces built at various times during its history. At the heart of the Nasrid Palaces complex is the Palacio de los Leones (Palace of the Lions). It’s likely that the structure was originally independent of the others, with the existing passage between the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions added sometime after the Muslim-ruled town of Granada fell to the Christians in 1492. 

This was our favorite part of the entire Alhambra complex.

Built at the peak of the Nasrid dynasty, the palace and cloister-like courtyard known as the Patio de los Leones (yes, you guessed it: the Patio of the Lions) was commissioned by Muhammad V during the second half of the 14th century, as a pleasure palace for the emir and his harem. 

What Islamic art lacks in depictions of living creatures, it more than makes up for in beautiful patterns.

“It was like something out of “Game of Thrones.”

The sultan invited the chief noblemen of the Abencerraje family to a banquet — and set about unceremoniously massacring all 36 of them.”

Delicate pillars frame restoration work.

The two main structures we’re covering in this post are:

• Palacio de los Leones

• Palacio de Carlos V 

The wall carvings in this section of the Nasrid Palaces are truly spectacular. Can you spot the bird on its peculiar perch?

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MORE ALHAMBRA POSTS

Explore the Generalife Gardens

Enter the Alcazaba fortress

Start your Nasrid Palaces adventure with the Mexuar and Comares Palace

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Everywhere you look, your vision is filled with stunning architecture and delicate carvings.

At the time of our visit, the palace’s impressive namesake fountain, a polygonal basin supported on the haunches of 12 rather primitive-looking white marble lions, was undergoing restoration. As we passed by the fountain under repair, we were told no photos were allowed. Incidentally, this didn’t prevent Wally from discreetly holding out his camera and snapping an image of the fountain as we passed by. 

Wally snuck a shot of the lion fountain while it was under repair.

The fountain is unusual, as representations of living creatures do not typically appear in Islamic art. 

The patio is divided into four quadrants, with running water channels symbolizing the four rivers that run through the Islamic idea of paradise: wine, water, milk and honey.

Windows look out upon the greenery, which was watered via ancient aqueducts.

Four Rooms 

Slender columns with cubic capitals support the intricately carved arcades of stalactite-like muqarna arches surrounding the perimeter gallery. Its massive chambers open onto the courtyard with the Sala de los Abencerrajes to the south and the Sala de las Dos Hermanas to the north. The other two are the Sala de los Mocárabes, closest to the entrance, and the Sala de Los Reyes, to the west, which was closed during our visit. 

The domed ceiling of the Hall of the Two Sisters reminded us of a honeycomb.

Sala de las Dos Hermanas, the Hall of the Two Sisters

The room takes its name from a pair of large white marble slabs set into the floor. Why these slabs were thought to be female relations is anybody’s guess. But the most outstanding feature of the room isn’t its floors — it’s the ceiling. Framed by a symmetrical eight-pointed star illuminated by light that filters through 16 latticed mashrabiya windows, the beautiful honeycombed ceiling of this two-storied hall is nothing short of breathtaking.

The conquering Catholic Monarchs never completed their plasterwork ceiling. It junked up the room, if you ask us.

Sala de Los Mocárabes, the Stalactite Hall of Muqarnas 

This room most likely served as a reception hall due to its proximity to the palace entrance. It took its name from a vault of stepped plaster brackets resembling stalactites known as mocárabes, or muqarnas in Arabic, that once covered it. It’s believed that these ornamental vaults were a symbolic representation of the cave where the Angel Gabriel revealed the Qur’an to the Prophet Muhammed. Sadly, these mocárabes were removed due to the explosion of a powder magazine in 1590.

An incomplete plaster ceiling featuring the imperial shield of Felipe II and the initials of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile were added to replace the mocárabes in 1614. 

The Slaying of the Abencerrajes by Marià Fortuny, 1870

Sala de los Abencerrajes, Site of a Massacre

This beautiful chamber is steeped in lore and is the site of one of the Alhambra’s most popular legends — like something out of Game of Thrones.

According to one version of the tale, Sa’d, the 20th sultan of the Nasrid dynasty, and his brother Muhammad XIII, were worried about the growing political power of a prominent noble family, whose surname was Abencerraje. The sultan was told that the Abencerrajes were plotting against him. He invited the chief noblemen of the Abencerraje family to a banquet — and set about unceremoniously massacring them. The legend continues, suggesting that the reddish-brown stains on the marble fountain in the center of the hall are traces of blood from the 36 slain Abencerrajes. 

With cherubs adorning its exterior, the Palace of Charles V feels very different than the rest of the Alhambra. In fact, it pales in comparison to the ornate opulence of the Palace of the Lions.

Palacio de Carlos V, the Palace of Charles V

Also located within the complex, the extravagant Renaissance-style Palace of Charles V is a striking contrast to the Moorish architecture of the Alhambra. During the occupation of the Christian monarchy, Charles V (1500-1558) visited the Alhambra and decided to build a grand palace there as a wedding gift to his wife, Isabella.

Portrait of Charles V on Horseback by Anthony van Dyck, 1620

The palace was designed in 1528 by Pedro Machuca, though construction didn’t begin until 1553. Unfortunately, the project was abandoned in 1568 before it was completed, owing to the rebellion of the Moors in Granada, and remained unfinished until Leopoldo Torres Balbás devised a plan to restore the building in 1923. 

The two-story colonnade that encircles the palace

Its façade is embellished with bronze rings held in the mouths of lion heads, except for the corners, which are held by eagles. Inside is a circular peristyle courtyard. It felt like the interior of the Colosseum, with visitors strangely exposed from every angle.

The open-aired circular court of Charles V’s palace at the Alhambra, which felt like an arena to us

By this time, Wally and I were both experiencing sensory overload. We returned our headsets to our guide and exited through the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice). 

Touring the Alhambra had been a dream of Wally’s ever since he saw a report on it while studying abroad. He was stuck spending the winter in Germany studying Bauhaus architecture, which he found boring.

Getting There

Wally and I walked from our accommodations at Casa Horno del Oro in the Albaicín neighborhood until we reached the Plaza Nueva, Granada’s oldest square. From there you’ll follow Cuesta de Gomérez, the pedestrian street leading to the Alhambra. When you reach the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of the Pomegranates), continue uphill until you reach the entrance pavilion. It’s a steep walk, but you can make it there in about 15-20 minutes.

A guided tour of the Alhambra cost about 46€ at the time we visited. –Duke

Exit through the gift shop.

 

Gain an Audience at the Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra

Start your exploration of the Nasrid Palaces with the Mexuar, Patio del Cuarto Dorado, Comares Palace and Salón de Los Embajadores. 

The Islamic Nasrid Palaces are the most spectacular part of the Alhambra complex.

While we were in Spain, we found that most places, from neighborhood restaurants to international chains, didn’t follow any set schedule. They seemed to open and close on a whim. Los Palacios Nazaríes, or the Nasrid Palaces, are one of the only things in Spain that stick to a set schedule, so having a guide ensured that Wally and I didn’t miss our time of entry — if you do, you won’t be permitted to enter. 

And the Nasrid Palaces aren’t something you want to miss. The ornate interiors indicate that the structures were used as the private quarters of the sultan, his wives, his imperial harem and the rest of his family — unlike the Alcazaba, which served as a military fortress. 

A Court in the Alhambra in the Time of the Moors by Edwin Lord Weeks, 1876

The two main structures we’re covering in this post are:

• Mexuar

• Comares Palace

Altogether, there were 22 successive sultans between 1238-1492 BCE — that’s an average of roughly 10 years per sultan over a period of 254 years! 

“The walls are covered with brilliantly colored tilework, above which bands of sinuous kufic script are interwoven with floral ornament.”

There are courtyards, a magnificent throne room, private quarters and restful gardens within. And although no furniture remains in any of the rooms, it’s the ornate designs and geometric patterns covering the walls and ceilings that are the true stars of the show.

Wally likes to spend his birthdays touring memorable locales — and the Alhambra was something he had dreamed of for years.

Mexuar Audience Hall

Our tour of the palace complex began with the Mexuar. This earliest surviving structure of the Alhambra is believed to have been commissioned by Ismail I (who ruled from 1314-1325). It was modified and enlarged by Yusef I (1333-1354), and later altered and completed by his son Muhammad V (1362-1391). The Mexuar served as a council chamber and reception hall to receive and conduct business with the general public. 

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V put his stamp on the Mexuar tilework, incorporating some of his heraldic iconography, including a two-headed eagle.

Be sure to look up at the decorative coffered cedarwood ceilings, referred to as artesonado in Spanish. Then look down a bit: The lower walls are completely covered with glazed ceramic mosaic tile panels arranged in a complex geometric pattern resembling interlocking stars in vivid shades of green, blue and yellow. A few bear evidence of the Catholic conquest, which ended Islamic rule in the region: Charles V’s heraldic emblem featuring a pair of pillars with a red ribbon draped between them as well as a double-headed eagle. A band of calligraphic ornamentation carved into the stucco panels encircling the room give the hall a formal air suitable for receiving dignitaries, with the declaration “There is no conqueror but Allah,” repeated multiple times in Islamic calligraphy.

The gloriously gilded ceiling of the Cuarto Dorado

Patio del Cuarto Dorado, the Patio of the Golden Room

From the Mexuar, our group entered the adjoining enclosed courtyard known as the Patio del Cuarto Dorado (Patio of the Golden, or Gilded, Room). The lotus-shaped marble fountain in the center of the patio was fabricated in 1943 and is a replica of the original, which is now located in Daraxa’s Garden, adjacent to the Palace of the Lions. 

Islamic tradition stated that depictions of people are blasphemous, so the builders of the Alhambra created complex geometric patterns and scrollwork.

The chamber beyond is referred to as the Cuarto Dorado. It functioned as an anteroom between the Alhambra’s public and private spaces and takes its name from the gilt-wood ceiling that was added after the Christian conquest. 

Looking out at the Patio de Arrayanes

Palacio de Comares and the Patio de Arrayanes: the Alhambra’s Money Shot

Immediately ahead is the Palacio de Comares (named for a nearby town that crafted the crystals used to make stained glass), the money shot of nearly every guidebook, as it’s here where the oft-photographed Patio de Arrayanes (Court of Myrtles) and its narrow glassy pool of water is located. This tranquil enclosed space was commissioned during the reign of Yusuf I and was named for the verdant clipped hedges that border the central pool. 

The two-story southern façade is the most highly embellished in the Alhambra and was renovated in 1369 by Muhammad V to celebrate his victory at Algeciras near Gibraltar in 1869. Behind its succession of arches is a geometrically patterned mosaic tiled wall and interwoven, lacy, carved stucco plasterwork, further embellished by the arabesque tree of life motif. A set of small windows with delicate fretwork mashrabiya screens for discreet viewing look down from the second floor into the courtyard. 

Pretty much every square inch of the Nasrid Palaces’ walls are covered with beautiful, ornate carvings.

The north façade has a similar design to the south, yet is a single level and serves as the entry point for the Torre de Comares. This structure rises majestically above the palace arcade and is the tallest external tower of the Alhambra, with a height of 147 feet.

The Hall of the Ambassadors is where King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella met with Christopher Columbus to grant him permission to seek a new route to India (and we know how that turned out).

Salón de los Embajadores, the Hall of the Ambassadors

Inside the Torre de Comares is the grand reception hall known today as the Salón de los Embajadores, the Hall of the Ambassadors. Its vaulted wood ceiling is ornamented with a profusion of blue, white and gold inlay work in the shape of circles, crowns and stars, representative of the seven heavens of Islamic belief. The lower walls of the hall are covered with brilliantly colored tilework, above which horizontal bands of sinuous, vine-like kufic script are interwoven with floral ornament. One bears the inscription “Speak few words and you will leave in peace,” perhaps instructions for those requesting the audience of the sultan. I’m sure the sultan was busy, but that’s essentially like putting up a sign that says, “Keep it brief.”

The ceiling of the Hall of the Ambassadors resembles a starry sky.

The hall contains a total of nine alcoves, three per side, with windows known as cumarias, Spanish for stained glass, and incidentally where the palace gets its name from. Sadly, the windows are no longer there. A central niche opposite the entrance at the back of the hall was originally occupied by the sultan’s throne and contains the inscription “My lord, the victorious Yusuf, has decorated me with robes of glory and has made me the throne of his rule.”

You would cry, too, if it happened to you: King Boabdil Bids Farewell to Granada by Alfred Dehodencq, 1882

Legend has it that Muhammad XII, known as Boabdil, the 22nd and final sultan of the Nasrid dynasty, met with his council in the Salón de los Embajadores on November 25, 1491 and signed the Treaty of Granada, capitulating the last Muslim territory in the region to Christendom. As Boabdil left the city with his entourage, he looked back from the mountain pass at the beauty of what he had lost, and wept. –Duke

If you’re in the South of Spain, you can’t leave without a visit to the amazing Alhambra.

 

The Alcazaba, the Fierce Fortress of the Alhambra

Tour the towers of the defensive outpost perched above the charming city of Granada in the South of Spain.

Start your tour of the Alhambra with the Generalife gardens and the Alcazaba fortress.

With the snow-capped peaks of the Sierra Nevada as a backdrop, it’s easy to see why the monumental fortress palace of the Alhambra is one of the most visited monuments in Spain, second only to the Sagrada Família in Barcelona. 

The complex of buildings was fittingly recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984, and served as residence to the Islamic sultanates of the Iberian Peninsula. Muslims ruled the region from the 11th to 15th century, until conquered by the Catholic monarchy in 1492. The Alhambra’s name comes from the Arabic al-Qal’at al-Hamra, or Red Fortress, owing to the reddish color of the clay-rich soil of the al-Sabika Hill ridge, where it rises from the terrain. That same ochre soil was used in the rammed, or compressed, earth brick walls of this impressive complex. 

“ A fortress doesn’t do any good if you simply open its doors to invaders.

But that’s exactly what King Boabdil did, after his fellow Muslims had ruled the region for nearly 700 years. ”

Touring the Alcazaba and the rest of the Alhambra made for a birthday Wally will never forget!

After literally taking time to stop and smell the roses in the gardens of the Generalife, we made our way to the Alcazaba, the fortress that once guarded the palace. We had booked our tickets for a guided tour (about 46€) months before, and a small group of ill-mannered and boisterous British tourists were part of our entourage. One of them was a doddering old man named Leslie, who frequently strayed from the group, and whose companions could be heard incessantly shouting, “Leslie! Leslie, come here!” to reel him back in. 

This is Leslie, wandering off again. “Leslie! Get back here!”

Plaza de los Aljibes, the Square of the Cisterns

Our group arrived at the Plaza de los Aljibes, the Square of the Cisterns, built after the Christian victory. The broad open space got its name from the underground cisterns built to collect rainwater below the square because the new occupants didn’t understand the complexities of the water channels the Arab engineers had created, leaving the aqueducts to fall into disrepair. Off to one side of the square lie the Nasrid Palaces, to the other, the Alcazaba.

The entrance to the Alcazaba, built by Muhammad I, the first sultan of the Nasrid dynasty

The Alcazaba Fortress

The austere military enclosure of the Alcazaba fortress is strategically positioned at the summit of the westernmost end of the monumental site, overlooking the city of Granada. Its construction is attributed to Muhammad I (who reigned from 1238-1273), the founder of the Nasrid dynasty. A stark contrast to the opulent and residential Nasrid Palaces, its primary function was to shield its inhabitants from external attacks. 

The separations in the defensive wall allowed archers to fire at invaders.

Of the whole set of structures within the Alhambra, the Alcazaba is the oldest. The north-facing walls were built atop the remains of a 9th century castle constructed for the Zirid dynasty, who were Berbers from Algeria, and incorporated into the foundation walls. Here, Muhammad I strengthened the enclosure walls and constructed three of its 30 imposing towers. Our group entered the fortress from the plaza through a doorway cut into the high east-facing wall. 

Torre del Homenaje, the Tribute Tower

Located at the northeast corner of the perimeter wall is the keep, known as the Torre del Homenaje, which could be translated as the Tribute Tower or the Tower of Homage. It’s one of the highest of the Alhambra and was strategically the most important, as it served both defensive and offensive purposes. The upright crenellated “teeth,” aka the battlements along the top of the tower, protected sentries from attacks and allowed them to fire arrows at intruders. Throughout its history, the tower served many functions, including as royal residence to Muhammad I and as a prison during the Christian occupation. 

The towers of the Alcazaba, the Torre de la Vela in particular, provide great views of the white city of Granada below.

Torre de la Vela, the Watchtower

The Torre de la Vela, the Watchtower, defiantly perches on the far west end of the hill, where the previously mentioned modest Zirid castle once stood. It served as a watchtower, and the interior consists of four floors plus the terrace and a subterranean dungeon—a kind of command center in the middle of the fortress. 

Wally and I climbed the narrow staircase to the top to take in the panoramic bird’s-eye view of the rolling Andalusian hills and Albaicín, Granada’s Moorish neighborhood. The terrace is crowned by a bell tower, added by the Christian kings in the 18th century, which was used to signal significant news to the general populace. 

There are many thoughts on the origin of its name. The literal translation of the word vela is “candle,” but one theory posits that the bell was brought from Castil de Vela, a municipality located in the province of Palencia. Then again, it could be connected to the verb desvelar, which means to keep awake, possibly referring to the sounding bell and its ability to awaken anyone below from slumber. In any event, the bell is rung every January 2 to celebrate the taking of Granada from the Muslim sultans.

The Alcazaba at the Alhambra is cool to tour — but just wait till you see the ornate Nasrid Palaces!

Torre Quebrada, the Broken Tower

This imposing monolithic tower stands within the shadow of the Torre de la Vela. I couldn’t find any specifics as to how it acquired its name, but one could presume that it suffered from seismic activity, or Napoleon's army, which decided to inflict damage by blowing up a few of the towers when they withdrew from the palace, petty and bitter at having lost the Peninsular War, which took place from 1808-1814. 

Visitors had to leave their weapons at the Puerta de las Armas.

Puerta de las Armas, the Gate of Arms

Originally, the Bab al-Silas, or Puerta de las Armas, the Gate of Arms, functioned as the populace’s primary entrance. The doorway probably got its name from its associated use: Visitors were stopped and required to leave their weapons behind before gaining access. 

Part of the Plaza de las Armas contains the ruins of the Barrio Castrense, the foundations of the residential dwellings for the royal guard and soldiers needed for the defense of the sultan. 

The foundations of the military quarters can still be seen in the Plaza de la Armas.

The Surrender of Granada by Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz, 1882, shows poor Baobdil turning over the keys to Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella.

Letting the Catholics In

A fortress doesn’t do you any good if you simply open its doors to invaders. But that’s exactly what King Boabdil did, after his fellow Muslims had ruled the region for nearly 700 years. 

On January 2, 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile ceremoniously entered Granada, curiously in Muslim dress. They set up court in the Alhambra declaring it a Casa Real, or royal residence. One of their first orders of business? Declaring that all Jews and Muslims had to convert to Catholicism or leave the country. –Duke

 

8 Frightening Facts About Sultan Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif

He’s the most gruesome character in the history of Morocco. The country’s own Vlad the Impaler has some dubious claims to fame — including fathering more kids than anyone else in history.

Sultan Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif believed he was a descendent of the Prophet Mohammed — and used that as an excuse for some very bad behavior.

Sultan Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif was propelled to the throne of Morocco in 1672. His brother had been riding horseback after a victory banquet and was killed when his horse galloped beneath the low-hanging branches of the palace orchard.

Ismail’s reign as sultan, from 1672-1727, was longer than any other ruler in Moroccan history. Whether he should be remembered more for his beautiful creations or his cruel tyranny is a matter of dispute — but everyone agrees that Ismail was one of the most important rulers in Moroccan history.

“Men who merely glanced at one of his wives or concubines were punished by death. ”

Here are some of the things that made the sultan so infamous.

1. He killed his servants at whim.

Ismail was not, by any accounts, a very nice man. In fact, he’s been quoted as having said, “My subjects are like rats in a basket, and if I do not keep shaking the basket, they will gnaw their way through.”

It’s estimated that 30,000 poor souls met their deaths at the hands of the sultan — often for no reason. He was well known to kill people during fits of rage. According to one story, the sultan lopped off the head of a slave who had been adjusting his stirrup as he was mounting his horse. They didn’t call him “the Bloodthirsty” for nothing.

Legend has it that Ismail had sex every single day — which wouldn’t be too tough to do if you had over 500 women to choose from.

2. Ismail was a sex addict — and fathered more children than anyone else in history.

Ismail was well-known for siring hundreds of children. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, he fathered 888 children — the highest number of offspring for anyone throughout history that can be verified.

Each of the 500 concubines in Ismail’s harem had their own eunuch and handmaiden.

3. He had 500 concubines, which no one else could even look at.

He was fiercely protective of his four wives and 500 concubines. Whenever a tribe surrendered to Moulay Ismail, the leader was forced to offer his most beautiful daughter to the sultan as a gift.

The women were treated like Ismail’s favorite toys. Each concubine was granted a personal eunuch, a castrated male slave, and an odalisque, or female attendant.

The lake-like Bassin de l’Agdal in Meknès served as an emergency source of water in times of war and a pool for his concubines in times of peace.

Men who merely glanced at one of his wives or concubines were punished by death. It’s said that men who encountered the sultan’s women laid facing the ground, so as to avoid any accusation of having looked upon them.

If any of Ismail’s harem were suspected of adultery, they were severely punished or put to death. The women were either strangled by the sultan himself or had their breasts cut off or teeth extracted.

Ismail fathered at least 888 kids — more than anyone else in recorded history!

4. The Sharif family claims to be descendants of the Prophet Mohammed.

Ismail succeeded the throne at the age of 26 and established Meknès as the capital of the kingdom. He was a member of the Sharif dynasty, which claimed to be descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, the founder of Islam.

Ismail used this pretense to justify his actions, both cruel and kind. His subjects bowed in his presence, and were not allowed to look him in the eye.

During his 55-year reign, he managed to create magnificent and enormous construction projects. His palace was built exclusively by European slaves, aided by bands of local criminals. The palace was four miles in circumference, and its walls were 25 feet thick.

As soon as he finished one project, he’d start on another. If he didn’t like something, he would order it demolished and a new one rebuilt.

Ismail killed people for the slightest offense, including even just looking at one of his concubines.

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Learn More About the History of Meknès Here

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5. The sultan’s favorite wife was once a concubine who convinced him to punish his son in a horrific manner.

Ismail’s favorite wife and queen of the palace was a black woman who started out as a concubine. Her name was Lalla Aisha Mubarka, or Zaydana, the name she acquired after giving birth to the sultan’s first son, Zaydan.

She held sway over Ismail and hatched a scheme to depose his favorite son, Mohammed al-Alim, suggesting that he intended to proclaim himself the sultan of Morocco. For his punishment, Ismail had his son’s left arm and right leg amputated for supposedly having rebelled against him. This was intended to send a message that any disobedience would mean severe punishment or death. Not surprisingly, Al-Alim died from blood loss.

Ismail’s Black Guard, made up of captured sub-Saharan slaves, acted as the sultan’s personal bodyguards.

6. Ismail created a massive self-generating army.

The formidable Black Guard was comprised of slave warriors acquired from sub-Saharan Africa. Considered loyal, as they no longer had any tribal affiliation, the Black Guard were Ismail’s personal guards and servants.

By the end of his reign, he had raised a powerful army of more than 150,000 men. These men had families and lived in communities of their own, but essentially belonged to Ismail. The boys were raised to serve in his army, which helped Ismail maintain his position and conquer the whole of Morocco from European kingdoms. The girls would marry, have children and continue the cycle.

The Black Guard exists to this day, though its name was changed to the Moroccan Royal Guard after the country gained its independence in 1956.

7. He also had an astoundingly large prison that mostly held Christians.

The Habs Qara (Prison of Christian Slaves) was a large subterranean prison beneath the city of Meknès. At its height, it held an estimated 60,000 prisoners, 40,000 of them believed to have been Christian sailors captured at sea by Barbary pirates. The Christians were used as slave labor to build the city during the day and were shackled to the prison walls in the evening and forced to sleep standing up.

Rumors of the existence of secret tunnels leading from the royal palace to the prison persist, despite lack of evidence.

Louis XIV, the Sun King of Versailles

8. The sultan and the Sun King were allies.

Ismail, the second ruler of the Alaouite dynasty, presided over Morocco at the same time that Louis XIV, the Sun King, ruled France. He and Louis XIV were close allies, and in 1682, Ismail sent Mohammed Tenim, the governor of Tétouan, to be his ambassador in France to sign a treaty of friendship and negotiate the release of Moroccan captives. French Baroque painter Charles Antoine Coypel depicted the Moroccan ambassador’s visit in his painting titled Mohammed Tenim, Ambassadeur du Maroc à la Comédie Italienne.

Mohammed Tenim, Ambassadeur du Maroc à la Comédie Italienne by Charles Antoine Coypel, 1682

Ismail proposed to Princess Marie Anne de Bourbon but was rejected.

Ismail sent his ambassador with a marriage proposal to Marie Anne de Bourbon, the eldest legitimized daughter of the king and his mistress Louise de La Vallière, but she declined. Thankfully, it didn’t lead to an international incident. –Duke

15 Best Articles of 2017

Our top blog posts cover the Paris Catacombs, India’s transsexual hijras, jinns, vintage Halloween, Fès hammans and more.

Duke and I tend to be drawn to the bizarre. We’re fans of the strange (chambers lined with skulls and bones, creepy vintage Halloween postcards and photos). We like to meet those who are societal outsiders (like India’s legal third sex, the hijra). We’re obsessed with the supernatural (jinns, gypsy love spells). But we also appreciate a good pampering (at a Fès hamman, say) and architectural beauties (such as the Milan Duomo).

Seems like you do, too. Here are the top 15 blog posts from last year. What was your favorite? –Wally

1. GRUESOME FACTS (AND HELPFUL TIPS) ABOUT THE PARIS CATACOMBS

No bones about it: If you think piles of skulls and hallways formed of bones are pretty effin’ cool (like us), then the Catacombs of Paris are for you.

2. SECRETS OF THE HIJRA: INDIA’S LITTLE-KNOWN TRANSSEXUALS

Prostitution, curses and dangerous sex change operations are a way of life for this marginalized community.

3. HOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF FROM JINNS AND BLACK MAGIC

Black magic in Islam is a serious concern — and the holy writings offer numerous ways to negate magic jinn.

4. THE BEST PLACE TO MAKE OUT IN PUBLIC IN DELHI

Not a typical tourist stop, the Garden of Five Senses is a whimsical sculpture park worth visiting. It’s also popular with local couples escaping societal judgment against PDA.

5. 24 VINTAGE HALLOWEEN CARDS THAT ARE NOSTALGIC — BUT A BIT CREEPY, TOO

Halloween greetings from the past featured common Halloween symbols: the witch, black cat, jack-o’-lantern, ghost, devil — and one that has been forgotten.

6. 21 VINTAGE HALLOWEEN PHOTOS THAT ARE SO CREEPY THEY'LL GIVE YOU NIGHTMARES

Halloween costumes of the past were scary as hell.

7. WHAT’S THE BEST HAMMAM SPA EXPERIENCE IN FES, MOROCCO?

Reinvigorate yourself at the luxury hammam Les Bains Amani.

8. 7 FUN FACTS ABOUT THE MILAN CATHEDRAL

What to do in Milan, Italy? Visit the gorgeous Duomo di Milano, covered with statues of saints and gargoyles — and don’t miss the amazing view from the rooftop.

9. LOVE SPELLS FROM THE GYPSIES

How to cast a love spell to make someone fall in love with you — or fall out of love with you. Plus, secrets from the Roma that will reveal your future spouse!

10. THE PISHTACO OF PERU

Why one of the world’s creepiest vampire legends lingers to this day.

11. WAT RONG SUEA TEN, THE BLUE TEMPLE

No day trip to Chiang Rai is complete without a visit to this breathtaking wat, between the White Temple and Black Museum.

12. THE BEST AND WORST PARTS OF LIVING IN QATAR

What’s it like living in a Muslim country that fasts for an entire month and limits the sale of booze? What do Qataris think of Americans? And how the heck do you pronounce Qatar?

13. THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM EXPLAINED

Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, untouchable: How did the caste system get started, what is the difference between castes — and how does this shameful practice persist to this day?

14. HOW ST. NICHOLAS BECAME SANTA CLAUS

The surprising origins of jolly old St. Nick include a tie to prostitution, kids chopped into pieces, a devil named Krampus and a racist tradition around his helper Zwarte Pieter, or Black Peter.

15. THE BEST SHOP FOR BLUE POTTERY IN THE ENTIRE FEZ MEDINA

If you’re shopping in Fès, just off of Place Seffarine is a small shop with a friendly owner and great deals.