When Was the Bible Written? Dating Genesis

The stories of Abraham, Jacob and Isaac in the Old Testament provide clues that, when paired with archaeological evidence, determine a date for when they would have happened.

Looking at the text of Genesis alongside archeological clues, scholars can make an informed guess as to when the events concerning Abraham and the other Old Testament patriarchs would have occurred.

In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth…which in turn led to a debate about when the events of Genesis, the first book of the Bible, took place. There’s also a controversy about if the events took place as well, but Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, in their book The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, wisely avoid that. The authors skip right over Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Noah, et al., jumping to the patriarch Abraham.

“What are the clues that the old way of dating Genesis was off by about 1,500 years?”

Until somewhat recently, biblical scholars landed on a date of about 2100 BCE for Abraham’s departure for Canaan. But Finkelstein and Silberman argue that archaeological evidence actually points to the events in Genesis matching up to the history of the 7th to 6th centuries BCE. What are these clues that the old way of dating Genesis was off by about 1,500 years?

Camel caravans, mentioned in Genesis, didn’t happen before the 8th century BCE.

Camels

As odd as it might seem, the camels mentioned throughout these stories reveal a major clue. Camels weren’t domesticated as beasts of burden in the ancient Near East until well after 1000 BCE. And caravans described as carrying gum, balm and myrrh in the Joseph story wouldn’t have been familiar until the Arabian trade flourished under the Assyrian Empire in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE.

The Philistine king of Gerar returns Sarah to Abraham.

The Philistines

These much-mentioned people of the Old Testament didn’t migrate from the Aegean or eastern Mediterranean until sometime after 1200 BCE. And it wasn’t until the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE that Gerar, identified today as Tel Haror, became a heavily fortified Assyrian administrative stronghold.

Jacob, described as an Aramean in Genesis, doles out his blessings to his male offspring, dividing up the land into the 12 tribes of Israel.

The Arameans

Arameans, who dominate the stories of Jacob and his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and his Uncle Laban, weren’t mentioned as a distinct ethnic group in ancient Near East texts until 1100 BCE or so. They became a dominant factor in the region in the early 9th century BCE. The history of early Israel and Aram are bound up together. In fact, “much of the population of the northern territories of the kingdom of Israel seems to have been Aramean in origin,” Finkelstein and Silberman write. Indeed, Jacob is even described at one point as “a wandering Aramean.” It wasn’t until the 9th to 8th centuries BCE that the two kingdoms created an official border. 

Fatherly deathbed blessings must have been common at the time. Here’s Isaac with his firstborn, Esau, who should have gotten his father’s birthright.

Jacob and Esau

In Genesis, Esau was the eldest son of Isaac, and by rights should have been given his father’s birthright. But his mother, Rebecca, preferred her younger son, Jacob, and tricked her husband into bestowing his blessing on Jacob instead. Even though that was a shady move, it explains how Israel and its people are God’s chosen people. Esau, a hunter and outdoorsman, represents the more primitive land of Edom, while Jacob, sensitive and cultured, represents Israel. The kingdom of Edom, in what’s now southern Jordan, didn’t exist until the late 8th century BCE, reaching a peak in the 7th and early 6th centuries BCE.

Judah, seen here tempted into sex with his disguised daughter-in-law Tamar (that’s a whole other story), got the best kingdom of the bunch from Jacob: the region that was home to what was then the small town of Jerusalem.

Judah

On his deathbed, Jacob doled out a bunch of blessings to his male offspring, who would disperse into the 12 tribes of Israel. But Judah was the one who received the royal birthright, described in Genesis 49:8-10. The eponymously named kingdom of Judah remained isolated and sparsely populated until the 8th century BCE. Its capital was then a small, remote hill town with a name you might have heard before: Jerusalem. 

“Yet after the northern kingdom of Israel was liquidated by the Assyrian empire in 720 BCE, Judah grew enormously in population, developed complex state institutions, and emerged as a meaningful power in the region,” Finkelstein and Silberman write. “It was ruled by an ancient dynasty and possessed the most important surviving Temple to the God of Israel.” 

All of this evidence points to the fact that the rise of the people of Israel, including the famous patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Judah, would have lived around the 7th and 6th centuries BCE — and not 2100 BCE as previously theorized. –Wally

The Shocking Secrets of the Gospel of Judas

One of the Gnostic gospels, this “heretical” text paints a controversial picture of Christianity and the apostle who is said to have betrayed Jesus.

The Betrayal of Jesus by Giotto di Bondone, 1304. But what if Judas turning Jesus over to the authorities was all part of the plan?

Most people believe that Christianity has always been fully formed, as if the New Testament was handed down from God Himself.

But that’s not the case. We can be forgiven for falling under the impression “that Christianity actually was a single, static, universal system of beliefs,” write Elaine Pagels and Karen L. King in Reading Judas: The Gospel of Judas and the Shaping of Christianity. “Creating this impression was itself a remarkable achievement — one to which certain ‘fathers of the church’ were dedicated. But they did so precisely because they realized how diverse Christian groups were, and they feared that controversies over basic issues—like those revealed in the Gospel of Judas — might undermine the ‘universal church’ they were trying to build, along with the authority they were claiming for their church alone.”

But the discovery of additional texts like the Gnostic Gospels shows there were dissenting views and that early Christianity was anything but uniform. Church founders very carefully debated which gospels to keep — and which to discard.

The sorry state of the first page of the Gospel of Judas. That’s what a humid safety box and a stint in a freezer will do to ancient papyrus!

Unearthing the Gospel of Judas

The Gospel of Judas was written by an unknown author in Greek around 150 CE. Deemed heretical, the only known surviving copy is one that was translated into Coptic in the 4th century and discovered in the 1970s in Middle Egypt. It was part of what’s called the Tchacos Codex, which had a rough go of it, from its burial cave to a humid safety deposit box — even being frozen at one point!

A church father named Irenaeus rails against this particular group of Christians in work, Against Heresies, written around 180 CE:

They declare that Judas the traitor … alone, knowing the truth as no others did, accomplished the mystery of the betrayal; by him all things, both earthly and heavenly, were thus thrown into confusion. They produced a fictitious history of this kind, which they style the Gospel of Judas.

An early Christian leader, Irenaeus, railed against what he deemed heresies, including the Gospel of Judas.

This was at a time when Christianity had developed into numerous offshoots, with quite different beliefs. The Roman Emperor Constantine, a surprising but passionate convert to Christianity, attempted to resolve the differences by supporting the bishops he gathered together in 325 CE at the Council of Nicaea in present-day Turkey. These early church fathers went through the existing literature and chose what was canon and what was heresy. 

“The traditional history of Christianity is written almost solely from the viewpoint of the side that won, which was remarkably successful in silencing or distorting other voices, destroying their writings, and suppressing any who disagreed with them as dangerous and obstinate ‘heretics,’” Pagels and King write.

Those who dared to continue practicing beliefs the bishops had forbidden found their buildings confiscated or burned to the ground over the following centuries.

the shocking claims of the Gospel of Judas

The Gospel of Judas is a quick but confounding read. (At one point, for example, the writer offers this aside, which suggests that the son of God had the power to shapeshift: “Frequently, however, he would not reveal himself to his disciples, but you would find him in their midst as a child.” Judas 1:8).

Marvin Meyer and F. Gaudard translated the text into English for the National Geographic Society in 2006, and it wasn’t an easy task. As stated, the poor manuscript had been through the ringer. Improper handling and storage — including that stint in a freezer — had reduced the papyrus to fragments.

Here are four shocking claims made in the Gospel of Judas that completely disrupt what we know of Christianity.

The Taking of Christ by Caravaggio, circa 1602. The Christianity we know today was shaped by Church leaders 300 years after Jesus’ death — and early followers didn’t agree on doctrines.

1. Judas wasn’t a villain — he was actually Jesus’ favorite disciple and was asked by Christ to betray him.

This is the statement that’s the most shocking, even to this day, entirely turning the Gospels of the New Testament on their head.

“For thousands of years, Christians have pictured Judas as the incarnation of evil. Motivated by greed and inspired by Satan, he is the betrayer whom Dante placed in the third lowest circle of hell,” Pagels and King write. “But the Gospel of Judas shows Judas instead as Jesus’s closest and most trusted confidant — the one to whom Jesus reveals his deepest mysteries and whom he trusts to initiate the passion.”

On some level, this shouldn’t be such a big surprise. In all of the New Testament gospels, Jesus anticipated and even embraced his own death. So it’s not too far a stretch to imagine he worked with Judas to put his plan in motion.

2. The other apostles actually worship a false God and are mistaken in their beliefs about the Eucharist and martyrdom. 

The Gospel of Judas begins with Jesus laughing at the apostles (he laughs mockingly throughout the work) as they celebrate the Eucharist, believing that they were eating the body of Christ and drinking his blood — a practice that always struck me as eerily cannibalistic.

Matthew 26:26-28 reads, “As they were eating, Jesus took some bread and blessed it. Then he broke it in pieces and gave it to the disciples, saying, ‘Take this and eat it, for this is my body.’

The Gospel of Judas declares that the apostles got the Eucharist all wrong.

“Jesus’s laughter is a kind of ridicule or mockery intended to shock the disciples out of their complacency and false pride,” Pagels and King write. “Their deepest problem is that they don’t know they have a problem; they wrongly think they are already righteous, with their prayers and practices of piety.” 

Despite the hopeful message of salvation in the gospel, there’s a cryptic declaration near the beginning: Jesus said to them, “Do you (really think you) know me — how? Truly I say to you, no race from the people among you will ever know me.” Judas 2:10-11.

The apostles then have a dream that horrifies them: Priests sacrificed their children and wives. Some had sex with other men, while some engaged in slaughter, amongst an array of other “sins and injustices.”

Jesus once again laughs (I told you) and informs them that they are the ones doing those deeds and that they worship a false God.

This is, in part, supposed to be a commentary on the craze of martyrdom. Not surprisingly, many followers of Jesus at the time weren’t happy with the trend that persecuted Christians should eagerly embrace torture and violent death.

“Their anger was directed less against the Romans than at their own leaders for encouraging Christians to accept martyrdom as God’s will, as though God desired these tortured bodies for his own glory,” Pagels and King write.

The apostles just didn’t understand Jesus’ teachings, according to the Gospel of Judas — even the “God” they worshipped was false!

The author of the Gospel of Judas points out what he feels is a stunning contradiction: “while Christians refuse to practice sacrifice, many of them bring sacrifice right back into the center of Christian worship — by claiming that Jesus’s death is a sacrifice for human sin, and then by insisting that Christians who die as martyrs are sacrifices pleasing to God,” the authors point out.

 Jesus tells the disciples that the supposed “God” they worship is actually a lower angel who’s leading them astray. (This is where the gospel starts going a bit off the rails and gets all metaphysical.)

St. Stephen, said to be the first Christian martyr, as painted by Rembrandt.

3. Judas didn’t commit suicide — he was, in fact, the first Christian martyr.

The Gospel of Matthew states that Judas, ashamed at his betrayal, returned the 30 pieces of silver that had been his bribe, and hanged himself.

The Suicide of Judas by John Canavesio, circa 1492 — but did Judas really hang himself? The Gospel of Judas has him meeting a different gruesome end.

But the Gospel of Judas tells a different tale: The other disciples, horrified by what Judas has done, and not grasping the truth of Jesus’ plan, stone the supposed traitor to death. Even though the gospel decries martyrdom, it paradoxically also states that its subject was the first Christian martyr. 

Resurrection of the Flesh by Luca Signorelli, circa 1500. According to 1 Corinthians 15: 52, “the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed.”

4. Despite what mainstream Christian teachings preach, during the end times, resurrection of the faithful will not be physical but spiritual.

Only Judas is ready to hear the truth, so Jesus takes him aside and teaches him how the visible world we know is actually one of primeval darkness and disorder. But despair not: There’s a heavenly realm where the invisible Spirit of God dwells in an infinite cloud of light.

At a time when Christians believed that the apocalypse was going to happen in the near future and that the bodies of the faithful would be reanimated, the Gospel of Judas taught a controversial doctrine: The body is temporary, but the spirit is eternal.

Jesus said, “The souls of every human race will die. But when those (who belong to the holy race) have completed the time of the kingdom and the spirit separates from them, their bodies will die but their souls will be alive and they will be lifted up.

Gospel of Judas 8:1-4

That sounds suspiciously like the state of enlightenment at the heart of Buddhism, which was gaining favor around this time.

By the end of the gospel, Judas reaches enlightenment, er, comprehends Jesus’ teachings. No longer turning his eyes away from Jesus, he looks up and enters nirvana, er, that infinite cloud of light. 

The torture and execution of Jesus, whom many believed would be another warrior king, dealt a severe blow to the faith of many early Christians. The Gospel of Judas attempts to show that the crucifiction (and murder of Judas) shouldn’t be disheartening: “This gospel suggests that our lives consist of more than what biology or psychology can explore — that our real life begins when the spirit of God tranforms the soul,” Pagels and King write.

A depiction of Lucifer devouring poor Judas

Was Judas a Demon?

Another scholar, April D. DeConick, offers a contradictory view. She questions the mainstream interpretation of the Gospel of Judas, arguing that instead of being the favored apostle, Judas was actually a demon. 

That’s a misinterpretation of the Greek, according to Pagels and King. Jesus calls Judas the “thirteenth god,” using the word “daimon.” Of course this later developed a negative connotation, worming its way into our language as “demon.” But in Greek thought, the term indicated a lesser god or even an individual’s lot in life. 

“Indeed,” the authors state, “Plato wrote that everyone possesses a daimon” — an idea picked up by Philip Pullman in the His Dark Materials series. –Wally

The Appeal of Buddhism

What to expect and how to behave in a Thai temple — and why we prefer them to Christian churches.

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Thai temples, like Wat Ket Karam in Chiang Mai, have worship halls (viharns), towers containing relics (chedis) and a mix of other buildings

The first time you step into a Thai Buddhist temple as a Westerner, you might get overwhelmed. Temples in Thailand are called wats — but they’re not a single building, as you might imagine.

They’re actually entire complexes with multiple buildings, each a mélange of various styles. Faded carved teak, lichen-covered stone, glittering gold and green and red, gaudy ceramics, serene Buddhas, Chinese zodiac iconography, Hindu deities and bizarre hybrid creatures from mythology — they’re all jumbled about. 

“Women aren’t allowed to touch monks, and there are parts of certain wats where females are forbidden to enter. ”

And while I do love to visit a Zen garden or a sleek, austere sacred space, I’m truly a maximalist by nature. There’s something cozy and comforting about the mishmash found in wats. They’re fun to explore — you never know what lies around the next corner. You might even be startled by a wax figure of a famous monk that’s creepily lifelike.

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No, this isn’t a real monk — it’s a wax replica at Wat Phra Sing that could fit right in at Madame Tussauds. Wax monks are all the rage in Northern Thailand, and they’re sure to startle the unwary traveler

We recommend adopting this open-minded attitude if you’re visiting Chiang Mai. It’s a city filled with quirky and often beautiful wats, and wandering through them should be a part of every tourist’s agenda.

Duke and I probably enjoy wats more than your average travelers — we visited at least 12 in our week in Northern Thailand. More than churches, they’re all unique in their own way.

Follow the Rules

If you’re worried about how to behave in a wat, don’t be. I remember the first time I went to Thailand I was scared I’d do something wrong. I closely watched native worshippers, hoping to mimic their actions.

The good news is that, aside from some universal rules, there is no wrong way to pay your respects to the Buddha.

Follow these three simple rules when you’re in a wat:

1. Take off your shoes.

It’s good to have shoes or sandals you can easily slip on and off — you’ll be doing it multiple times in a wat complex.

2. Cover your shoulders and knees.

Some temples are more strict than others, though most in Chiang Mai are quite lax. If they’re strict about dress code, it often only pertains to women and they’ll have wraps you can borrow. (There’s a strain of sexism that runs through the country, where every man goes off to become a monk for a period of time, and many women enter the sex industry. Women aren’t allowed to touch monks, and there are parts of certain wats where females are forbidden to enter. With the exception of the amazing Wat Sri Suphan, the Silver Temple, most of the time these spots aren’t too remarkable, so you’re not really missing out on too much, ladies.)

3. Don’t point your feet at the Buddha.

The easiest way to avoid this is to never sit with your feet in front of you. Instead, play it safe and kneel, or sit cross-legged.

Otherwise you’re free to wander around at will and worship as you see fit.

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Sorry, ladies. Only men can feast their eyes on the interior of Wat Sri Suphan, the amazing Silver Temple in Chiang Mai

What Should Tourists Do in a Wat?

The main temple, known as a viharn, has an open hall that faces at least one — but usually many — often giant, depiction of the Buddha. They’re places for quiet prayers and contemplation. I could certainly benefit from more meditation. Or, heck, let’s face it: any mediation. These are the most like churches. You probably want to speak in quiet, reverent tones so as not to disturb worshippers.

As I mentioned, there’s no wrong way to pray in a wat. I like to kneel down, maybe extending my arms out in a bow. Then I do a wai, the Thai sign of respect, with your palms pressed together in front of your face. I bow three times and then sit there, still waiing, and have a little chat with the Buddha, like you might with God or Allah. If there’s something you’d like, ask for it. Give thanks for something. Or just sit still and try to clear your mind.

By the way, I don’t do this in every viharn I go in — only those that have a special feel that calls to me. Otherwise, I just walk around and take pictures.

Another appeal of Thai Buddhism is that outside of these solemn structures, wats are a thriving part of the community. Some have massage schools and offer rub-downs for an affordable price. Some have open-air food courts; with others, handicraft markets spill onto their grounds. The line between sacred and social blurs.  

As religion in the U.S. fades, with atheism on the rise, it’s interesting to experience a culture where it seems almost everyone is religious. Perhaps it’s because Buddhist worship seems pretty chill. You go to the temple whenever, you spend as much or as little time as you want, maybe you make a small donation to light a candle or ring a bell. There might be times when monks chant, but it’s not like a church service that’s so regimented.  

Honestly, wouldn’t you rather pray to this peaceful man than to one who’s being tortured to death?

If we lived in a place where Buddhist temples were as common as churches, I would pop into them every so often, spend 10 to 30 minutes praying, meditating or walking around the chedi.

I suppose it’s not that different than the people who go into a church to pray.

I guess I just prefer looking at a serenely smiling man to one nailed to a cross in agony.  

Can you tell? I’ve fallen for Buddhism. –Wally

Santa Semana Bar Crawl

Holy Week is a big deal in Málaga, Spain. Learn all about the bizarre celebrations featuring humpbacked and hooded figures in secret brotherhoods.

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La Dolorosa (Our Lady of the Sorrows). Resin teardrops, glass eyes and actual clothes add to the realism of the pained expression of the Virgin Mary, featured at Puerta Oscura in Málaga

Tucked away in the narrow Calle Mosquera and situated near the historic Málaga Centro, Taberna Cofrade las Merchanas is a local bar with an unassuming exterior that belies what awaits you inside.

Here, the interior is a quirky tribute to the Santa Semana celebration (Holy Week, which starts on Palm Sunday and concludes on Easter). The bar is filled with holy relics, photos and memorabilia associated with the traditions of Santa Semana. The establishment belongs to the cofradia (brotherhood) and although it was opened in 2011, it has the feel of having existed for decades.

“Local belief holds that the bigger the hump, the more pious the man.”

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Relics pertaining to Santa Semana fill the walls at a bar in Málaga, Spain, owned by one of the Holy Week brotherhoods

Semana Santa traditions in Spain are a serious affair — and Málaga is no exception. They include processions in which an elaborate ceremonial trono paso, literally a throne step or float, is carried by costaleros, or “sack men,” so named for the padded headdresses they wear to support the float. Because they’re hidden beneath a cloth, the trono paso looks like it’s floating through the air.

The platform of the trono paso holds life-size effigies made of wood, wax and wire depicting scenes from the gospels related to the Passion of Christ. There are up to 40 costaleros underneath each trono paso. These men bear the weight of the float on their necks and shoulders. Many are left with a humpback for several days after. Local belief holds that the bigger the hump, the more pious the man, our friend Jo informed us.

The pasos are followed by nazarenos, or penitents, dressed in colorful tunics and conical hoods and masks called capriotes to render the individual unidentifiable — they’re all equal in the eyes of God. Americans might be alarmed at first, confusing the hoods for those of the Ku Klux Klan, or KKK, who also adopted the medieval attire, though in white.

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A shelf filled with nazareno figurines at Taberna Cofrade las Merchanas in Málaga. The different colored robes indicate which hermandad (brotherhood) the individual belongs to.

The sound of slow, rhythmic drum beats traditionally heard during the procession provide the soundtrack in the bar, which is a stop on the pilgrimage circuit during Holy Week — and serves up good tapas year-round.

RELATED: In Seville, the jubilant Feria de Abril begins two weeks after Semana Santa, while in Málaga, it’s typically held in August.

Taberna Cofrade las Merchanas

Calle Mosquera, 5

The Devil’s in the Details

After visiting the Soho district, a street art mecca, our friends Jo and José led us to the café/bar Puerta Oscura, or the Dark Door.

Upon entering, the dimly lit interior resembles a Baroque-period salon: pale powder blue walls, ornamental plaster embellishments and cut crystal chandeliers accompanied by furnishings upholstered in a burgundy and gold stripe.

The main room of the café serves as an exhibition space for museum-quality polychromed devotional sculptures, and at the time of our visit last spring was featuring the work of Ramón Cuenca Santos.

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The intricate process to create the sculptures includes clay and polychromed cedar.

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Jesús Cautivo (Bound Jesus), a life-size (and amazingly lifelike) seated Christ with wrists wrapped in real gold-colored rope.

It was fascinating to see the prototype sculpture first conceived in clay and subsequently polychromed cedar. These expertly handcarved and painted sculptures appear as if they might just move when you’re not looking.  

We ordered coffee and perched on stools while classical music played, and Wally and I took photos of the sculptures.

The process of creating these lifelike sculptures is truly amazing:

Puerta Oscura

Calle Molina Lario, 5

Holy Cow! Sacred Cow!

Cows like these have free rein in India, where they are revered by Hindus.

Why are cows in India revered as holy? A look at Hindu history reveals why bovines are so blessed there.

Let’s face it. Cows aren’t the most noble of beasts.

If you were to tell me that the world’s 900 million Hindus revered horses above all other creatures, I’d get it. They’re fast, graceful, gorgeous and more than a teensy bit intimidating.

“As cows amble along those dirty, dusty streets, you see them chomping away at the ever-present piles of garbage.

It’s enough to make you think that Indians have a funny way of showing their devotion.”

But their gangly, cud-chewing brethren? I really don’t get it.

Don’t Have a Cow, Man

Historian Mukul Kesavan helps reveal the Indian mindset: “For Hindus, the desi cow is a beautiful thing,” he writes. “Its large eyes, its calm, its matte skin tinted in a muted palette that runs from off-white to grey through beige and brown, its painterly silhouette with its signature hump, make it the most evolved of animals.”

Seeing cows in action in India made me think otherwise. Sure, they have the ultimate right of way on the chaotic, congested roads, causing many a traffic jam. But as they amble along those dirty, dusty streets, you see them chomping away at the ever-present piles of garbage. 

It’s enough to make you think that Indians have a funny way of showing their devotion.

Despite this, though, Hindus do take their beliefs seriously. In September 2015, a 50-year-old man in Uttar Pradesh was lynched by a mob. His crime? There were rumors that his family had been storing and eating beef.

Where’s the Beef?

I decided to investigate the root of this bovine reverence.

Turns out Hindus don’t worship cows so much as forbid worshippers from killing them, according to ReligionFacts. 

Some of the Rigveda, ancient Sanskrit hymns, refer to the cow as the goddess Devi as well as Aditi, the mother of the gods herself. Cows were also a favorite of Lord Krishna.

“He is said to have appeared 5,000 years ago as a cowherd and is often described as bala-gopala, ‘the child who protects the cows,’” PBS reports. “Another of Krishna’s holy names, Govinda, means ‘one who brings satisfaction to the cows.’ Other scriptures identify the cow as the ‘mother’ of all civilization, its milk nurturing the population.”

Thousands of years ago, Hindus stopped eating beef.

“This was most likely for practical reasons as well as spiritual,” ReligionFacts says. “It was expensive to slaughter an animal for religious rituals or for a guest, and the cow provided an abundance of important products, including milk, browned butter for lamps and fuel from dried dung.”

Panchagavya — a fermented concoction using cow’s milk, curds, ghee butter, urine and dung — is consumed by Hindu worshippers (shudder). 

“Most Indians do not share the Western revulsion at cow excrement,” according to ReligionFacts, “but instead consider it an earthy and useful natural product.”

By the early centuries CE, a cow became the appropriate gift to present to a brahman, one of Indian society’s high-caste priests. So revered were cows that killing one was seen as being equal to murdering a brahman. 

Gandhi went so far as to say, “If someone were to ask me what the most important outward manifestation of Hinduism was, I would suggest that it was the idea of cow protection.”

Keep It Moo-ving

Not all Indians view the cow so favorably, though.

“What is the greatest traffic hazard in Delhi today? Cows,” writes Bibek Debroy, a columnist for India’s Financial Express, according to PBS. “As our national animal, the tiger may be close to extinction. But the cow is very much around and may soon become our new national animal.”

How to deal with these menaces to society? Debroy offers a tongue-in-cheek solution, PBS continues. “Let them have reflectors and, if not license plates, at least identity cards. Only genuine Delhi cows should be eligible for social security and other benefits.” –Wally